Major Hazards and Good Practices

Earthquakes

• Caused by sudden release of energy along faults. In India, they occur mainly along the Himalayan collision zone and some peninsular faults.
• The Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 1893) seismic zoning map divides India into zones by hazard level, with the Himalaya, the North-East, Kutch and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in the highest-hazard category. Always check the latest revision of the map.
• Safety: earthquake-resistant building codes (IS 1893, IS 13920), retrofitting of schools and hospitals, and "Drop, Cover, Hold".

Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones form over warm seas (above about 26–27°C). India's east coast is hit more often than the west.
• IMD is the nodal agency for warnings and a Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre for the north Indian Ocean. Names come from a list prepared by the member countries of the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones.
• Odisha's model (after the 1999 super cyclone): cyclone shelters, early warning, community volunteers and mass evacuation – loss of life has fallen sharply.

Floods

• Causes: heavy monsoon rain, cloudbursts, silted rivers, encroachment on floodplains, and poor urban drainage (urban flooding in Mumbai, Chennai).
• Measures: floodplain zoning, embankments, reservoirs, forecasts (the Central Water Commission), and restoring wetlands and lakes.

Heat waves, droughts and landslides

• Heat waves – heat action plans (Ahmedabad was a pioneer in 2013): early warnings, cool shelters, water points and changed work hours.
• Drought – meteorological (rain deficit), hydrological (water bodies) and agricultural (soil moisture). Measures: watershed development, micro-irrigation, crop insurance and MGNREGA works.
• Landslides – the Himalaya and Western Ghats; caused by heavy rain, slope cutting and deforestation. Measures: hazard mapping, drainage, retaining walls and early-warning sensors.

Tsunami

• Usually caused by undersea earthquakes. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 led to the Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (INCOIS, Hyderabad, 2007).

Community-based disaster management

Local people are the first responders. Train volunteers ("Aapda Mitra"), map local risks, keep traditional knowledge, and include women, children, the elderly and persons with disabilities in plans.

Background: one country, many hazards

India faces almost every type of hazard. The key is to know, for each hazard, its cause → vulnerable areas → warning agency → mitigation → good practice.

Hazard-wise guide

Good practices from India

1. Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (2013) – the first in South Asia, started after the 2010 heatwave. It includes early warnings, cool spaces, hospital preparedness and cool roofs for slums. It became a model for 20+ states and over 100 cities.
2. Odisha's cyclone preparedness – multipurpose cyclone shelters and community volunteers (Phailin 2013, Fani 2019).
3. Kerala's "Rebuild Kerala" initiative after the 2018 floods – risk-informed reconstruction; "room for the river".
4. Gujarat after the 2001 earthquake – the GSDMA, owner-driven reconstruction, the Gujarat State Disaster Management Act 2003 (before the national Act), seismic codes.
5. Bihar's Kosi recovery – owner-driven housing with the World Bank.
6. School safety programmes – NDMA guidelines and mock drills.

Good practices abroad

• Japan: strict building codes, earthquake drills, early-warning alerts on phones, tsunami walls.
• Bangladesh: the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (volunteers, shelters) – deaths fell dramatically from the 1970 Bhola cyclone.
• The Netherlands: "Room for the River" – giving rivers space instead of only building higher dikes.

Causes and effects – the urban flooding problem

Causes:

• encroachment on lakes and drains (Bengaluru has lost many lakes);
• concretisation;
• poorly maintained drains;
• solid waste choking drains;
• extreme rainfall due to climate change;
• poor coordination between agencies.

Effects: loss of life, disruption of transport and economy, disease, damage to property.

Solutions (NDMA guidelines on urban flooding, 2010):

• an urban flood early-warning system (Mumbai's iFLOWS, Chennai's C-FLOWS);
• a drainage master plan;
• restoring wetlands;
• rainwater harvesting;
• permeable pavements.

Case study: the Joshimath land subsidence (2023)

In January 2023, cracks appeared in hundreds of houses in Joshimath (Uttarakhand), a town built on old landslide debris. Contributing factors identified in reports included unplanned construction, poor drainage (no proper sewer system, water seeping into the ground), and concerns raised about large projects in the area. Residents were relocated. Lessons: the carrying capacity of Himalayan towns must be assessed; building by-laws must reflect geology; drainage is critical; and the Mishra Committee (1976) had already warned about Joshimath's fragility – early warnings must be heeded.

Common misconceptions

• "Floods are caused only by heavy rain." – Encroachment, siltation, poor drainage and dam operations play big roles.
• "Heatwaves are not disasters." – They kill thousands. Several states have notified them as state-specific disasters, and NDMA has heatwave guidelines.
• "Early warning is enough." – Warnings must reach the last mile and be acted upon (the "first mile to last mile" chain).

How UPSC asks it

Mains themes include urban flooding, landslides in the Himalaya and Western Ghats, heatwaves, cyclone preparedness, GLOFs, and lessons from specific disasters. Prelims picks nodal agencies and seismic zones.

Mains answer framework

Q-type: "Urban flooding is increasingly a man-made disaster. Discuss with examples and suggest measures."

• Intro: recent urban floods (Chennai, Bengaluru, Delhi).
• Causes: natural (extreme rain) + man-made (encroachment, concretisation, drains, waste, governance).
• Impacts: human, economic, health.
• Measures: structural (drainage, sponge cities, wetlands) + non-structural (early warning, zoning, insurance, community awareness, single city authority).
• Conclusion: align urban planning with the Sendai Framework and SDG 11.

Good practices to quote

• Odisha – cyclone shelters, early warning and evacuation reduced deaths dramatically between the 1999 super cyclone and later cyclones such as Phailin (2013) and Fani (2019).
• Heat action plans – Ahmedabad's plan (2013) of early warnings, cooling centres and public awareness has been adapted by many cities.
• Kerala – community volunteers and fishermen in rescue during the 2018 floods.

Check your understanding

1. What causes a tsunami? Sudden displacement of sea water, usually by an undersea earthquake.
2. Why are urban floods increasing? Encroachment on drains and lakes, paved surfaces and intense rainfall.