Indus Waters Treaty

Background and evolution

Partition in 1947 drew the boundary across the Indus basin, leaving the headwaters in India and most of the irrigated plains in Pakistan. In April 1948, India briefly stopped water to some Pakistani canals, which showed how vulnerable Pakistan was. After a standstill agreement, David Lilienthal, former head of the Tennessee Valley Authority, suggested a joint approach, and the World Bank, under Eugene Black, mediated nearly a decade of talks.

The final treaty divided the rivers rather than sharing each one. India gained full use of the eastern rivers, allowing projects such as the Bhakra–Nangal dam and the Indira Gandhi Canal. Pakistan received the western rivers and, with funding from an international fund, built replacement works including the Mangla and Tarbela dams and link canals. The treaty survived the wars of 1965, 1971 and 1999, and is often cited as one of the most durable water agreements in the world.

Key features and provisions

• Annexures: detailed design criteria for Indian hydropower projects on the western rivers, such as limits on storage and the height of spillways.
• Data sharing: both sides exchange flow and project data.
• Commission meetings: the Permanent Indus Commission was meant to meet at least once a year and make tours of inspection.
• Three-tier disputes: questions go to the commission, differences to a Neutral Expert, and disputes to a Court of Arbitration.
• No exit clause: the treaty has no provision for unilateral withdrawal; it can be changed only by a new ratified treaty.