Mahajanapadas

Background and evolution

The later Vedic period saw the spread of settled agriculture in the Ganga valley, aided by iron tools and the clearing of forests. Tribal units (janas) gradually settled in territories (janapadas). By around 600 BCE, some janapadas had grown into larger states with capitals, armies and systems of taxation, called mahajanapadas, or "great janapadas".

This period also saw the second urbanisation of India, after the Harappan cities, with towns such as Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Ujjayini, Champa and Varanasi. Punch-marked coins came into use, trade expanded along river and land routes, and new religious and philosophical movements, including Buddhism and Jainism, emerged, often patronised by rulers and merchants of these states.

Key features and provisions

• Monarchies: states like Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were ruled by kings who collected taxes, maintained armies and built fortified capitals.
• Republics (gana-sanghas): states such as the Vajjis, with the Lichchhavis at Vaishali, and the Mallas were governed by assemblies of clan elders; decisions were taken by discussion.
• Taxation: kings collected bali, bhaga and other levies from cultivators, traders and artisans.
• Capitals: Magadha (Rajagriha, later Pataliputra), Kosala (Shravasti), Vatsa (Kaushambi), Avanti (Ujjayini, Mahishmati), Kashi (Varanasi), Anga (Champa), Gandhara (Taxila).
• Warfare: frequent conflicts led to the absorption of smaller states into larger ones.