The Upanishads are philosophical texts that form the concluding layer of the Vedic literature, exploring the relationship between the individual self (atman) and ultimate reality (brahman); they are the foundation of the Vedanta schools of Indian thought.
Vedic literature is usually described in four layers: the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (ritual commentaries), the Aranyakas (forest treatises) and the Upanishads. The Upanishads emerged as the focus of religious thought shifted from the correct performance of sacrifice to inner reflection on what lies behind the ritual and the world. The word is often explained as "sitting down near", suggesting teaching passed from teacher to student in small groups.
This shift took place in the later Vedic period in the Gangetic plain, the same broad era that saw the growth of states, towns and new ascetic movements. Many dialogues feature kings, sages and even women thinkers such as Gargi and Maitreyi, which shows that debate was not limited to priests. Several ideas that appear here, such as karma, rebirth and liberation, also became central to Buddhism and Jainism, which grew in the same intellectual climate.
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