The Vedic Age: Early and Later Vedic Society, Economy and Religion

Who were the Vedic people?

The Vedic Age (c. 1500–600 BCE) is named after the Vedas, the oldest texts of India. The people who composed them called themselves Aryans ("noble ones"). Most historians accept that Indo-Aryan speaking groups entered the north-west of the subcontinent from Central Asia in waves, mixing with existing populations. Language links between Sanskrit, Avestan (old Iranian) and European languages support the idea of a common Indo-European language family. The Boghazkoi inscription (Turkey, c. 1400 BCE) names the Vedic gods Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas, which shows these ideas travelled widely.

The period is divided into two phases:

The Vedic literature

The Vedic texts are called Shruti ("that which is heard"), believed to be revealed. They were passed down orally for centuries with extraordinary accuracy, which is why Vedic chanting is on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003/2008).

1. Rig Veda – the oldest; 1,028 hymns (suktas) in 10 mandalas. Mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest ("family books"). Mandala 3 contains the Gayatri mantra (to Savitri), and Mandala 10 contains the Purusha Sukta, the first mention of the four varnas.
2. Sama Veda – melodies for chanting; the root of Indian classical music.
3. Yajur Veda – sacrificial formulas in prose and verse; Shukla (white) and Krishna (black).
4. Atharva Veda – charms, spells, medicine and popular beliefs; a window into everyday life.

Each Veda has attached texts: Brahmanas (ritual explanations, e.g. Shatapatha Brahmana), Aranyakas ("forest books" on meditation), and Upanishads (philosophy). There are 108 Upanishads traditionally. The motto Satyameva Jayate comes from the Mundaka Upanishad.

Later, Vedangas (six limbs: shiksha, kalpa, vyakarana, nirukta, chhanda, jyotisha) developed as auxiliary sciences.

Early Vedic period

Geography: The Rig Veda mentions about 40 rivers. The Sindhu (Indus) is the most mentioned river and the Sarasvati is the most sacred ("naditama", best of rivers). The Ganga is mentioned only once and the Yamuna three times, which shows the early focus on Punjab.

Polity: The tribe (jana) was the main unit, led by the rajan, who was a war leader, not an absolute ruler. Popular assemblies checked his power:

• Sabha – a council of elders;
• Samiti – a general assembly of the people;
• Vidatha – the oldest assembly, with religious, military and social functions; women took part.

The king received voluntary gifts called bali; there was no regular tax. Officials included the purohita (priest) and senani (army chief). The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) on the Parushni (Ravi) was won by Sudas of the Bharata tribe. The Bharatas later gave their name to India (Bharat).

Economy: cattle were the main wealth; the word for war, gavishti, means "search for cows". Barley (yava) was grown. Barter used cows; nishka was a gold ornament later used as a unit of value.

Society: the family (kula) was patriarchal. Varna distinctions were based on occupation and not yet hereditary. Women such as Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra and Vishvavara composed hymns. There was no child marriage or sati in the Rig Veda; widow remarriage was allowed.

Religion: worship of nature gods through prayers and simple sacrifices for material benefits (cattle, sons, victory). Indra (war, rain; called Purandara, destroyer of forts) had the most hymns (about 250), followed by Agni (fire, intermediary between gods and humans, about 200), and Varuna (cosmic order, rita). Soma was a sacred drink; the whole Mandala 9 is dedicated to it. There were no temples or idols.

Later Vedic period

Expansion and iron: the use of iron (called *krishna ayas* or *shyama ayas*) from about 1000 BCE helped clear forests in the Ganga plains. The Shatapatha Brahmana describes Videgha Mathava carrying the sacred fire eastward, a story of the spread of Vedic culture to Videha.

Polity: tribes merged into territorial kingdoms such as the Kurus, Panchalas, Kosala, Kashi and Videha. Kings grew more powerful and performed grand sacrifices to show power:

• Rajasuya – royal consecration;
• Ashvamedha – horse sacrifice to claim territory;
• Vajapeya – chariot race.

A regular tax (bali became compulsory), and officials called ratnins emerged. The Sabha and Samiti lost power, and the Vidatha disappeared. Women were excluded from assemblies.

Economy: agriculture became primary: rice (vrihi), wheat, barley, and use of heavy ploughs drawn by many oxen. Crafts and early trade expanded; Painted Grey Ware pottery is linked to these settlements (Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Ahichchhatra).

Society: the four varnas became hereditary and rigid. The ashrama system (brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, sannyasa) is described; the fourth stage appears clearly only in later texts. Gotra (lineage exogamy) became institutionalised. Women's position declined; the Aitareya Brahmana regarded a daughter as a source of misery, although learned women such as Gargi and Maitreyi debated philosophy.

Religion: sacrifices became complex and costly, increasing the power of priests. Prajapati (creator) became the chief god, and Rudra and Vishnu gained importance. A reaction against ritualism came from the Upanishads, which emphasised knowledge (jnana), the identity of atman (self) and brahman (universal reality), karma and rebirth.

Why the Vedic age matters

The Vedic age gave India Sanskrit literature, the varna and ashrama ideas, sacrificial religion and Upanishadic philosophy. It also produced institutions such as the Sabha and Samiti, which modern writers cite as early examples of deliberative assemblies. At the same time, rigid varna and the decline of women's status created social tensions that the heterodox movements of the 6th century BCE would challenge.

Common traps

• Purusha Sukta is in the 10th mandala.
• The Gayatri mantra is in the 3rd mandala (composed by Vishvamitra).
• Satyameva Jayate is from the Mundaka Upanishad.
• The Ganga is mentioned once in the Rig Veda.
• PGW is associated with the Later Vedic phase; the Rig Vedic period has very little archaeology.

Sources and how historians use them

Vedic history is written mainly from texts, so historians read them carefully. Hymns were composed for rituals, not as chronicles, so information about economy or politics appears only incidentally. Scholars therefore compare the texts with archaeology (PGW sites, iron finds), linguistics (Indo-European word families), and more recently genetics. Dating rests on internal evidence: the Rig Veda knows no iron and no cities, while the later texts mention iron and the eastern Gangetic regions. This is why the Rig Vedic period is placed before about 1000 BCE.

Mains practice question

Q. "The transition from the Early to the Later Vedic period marked a shift from a pastoral to an agrarian society, with deep political and social consequences." Discuss. (150 words)

Answer framework:

• Introduction: define the two phases and their regions.
• Economic shift: cattle to plough, iron tools, rice, PGW settlements.
• Political consequences: jana to janapada, regular taxes, grand sacrifices, decline of assemblies.
• Social consequences: hereditary varna, gotra, decline in women's status, rise of priestly power.
• Religious change: costly rituals, then the Upanishadic reaction.
• Conclusion: these changes set the stage for the second urbanisation and the heterodox movements.

Quick self-test

1. Which mandala of the Rig Veda is devoted to Soma? *(9th)*
2. Name two women seers of the Rig Veda. *(Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra)*
3. What was the chariot-race sacrifice called? *(Vajapeya)*
4. What does *gavishti* mean? *(Search for cows, i.e. war)*
5. Which text tells the story of Videgha Mathava? *(Shatapatha Brahmana)*