Jainism, Ajivikas and Other Heterodox Schools

Origins of Jainism

Jains believe their religion is eternal and was revealed by 24 Tirthankaras ("ford-makers" who help people cross the river of rebirth). The first was Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), and the 23rd, Parshvanatha, was probably a historical figure who lived around the 8th century BCE in Varanasi. The 24th and last was Vardhamana Mahavira, who gave Jainism its classical form. The word Jain comes from jina ("conqueror"), meaning one who has conquered the senses.

Life of Mahavira

• Birth: about 540 BCE (traditional dates 599–527 BCE are also cited) at Kundagrama near Vaishali (Bihar). His father Siddhartha was head of the Jnatrika clan; his mother Trishala was a Lichchhavi princess, sister of Chetaka of Vaishali. This linked him to the ruling families of Magadha.
• He married Yashoda and had a daughter, Anojja (Priyadarshana), whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
• Renunciation at 30; he wandered as an ascetic for 12 years, practising severe austerities, later giving up clothes.
• Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) at 42, under a sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the Rijupalika river. He became a Jina and Kevalin.
• He preached for 30 years in Magadha, Videha and Anga, and died (attained nirvana) at 72 at Pavapuri near Rajagriha, around 468 BCE (or 527 BCE by tradition).

Core teachings

Three Jewels (Triratna):

1. Right faith (samyak darshana),
2. Right knowledge (samyak jnana),
3. Right conduct (samyak charitra).

Five vows (Pancha Mahavrata) for monks, and smaller versions (anuvratas) for lay followers:

1. Ahimsa – non-violence;
2. Satya – truthfulness;
3. Asteya – non-stealing;
4. Aparigraha – non-possession;
5. Brahmacharya – celibacy (added by Mahavira; the first four come from Parshvanatha).

Philosophical ideas:

• Jiva and ajiva: the universe contains living souls and non-living matter. Even plants, water and stones have souls. This is why Jains take extreme care not to harm any being – monks may sweep the path and cover their mouths.
• Karma is a fine matter that sticks to the soul; it is removed by penance and right conduct. Freedom from karma is moksha (kaivalya).
• Anekantavada – reality has many aspects; no single view is complete.
• Syadvada – "maybe" theory: every statement is true only from a certain point of view (sevenfold predication). These ideas promote tolerance.
• Jainism does not deny gods but places them below the Jina; it rejects the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of sacrifice.
• Sallekhana (santhara): voluntary fasting to death in old age, taken as a vow. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have died this way at Shravanabelagola.

Sects and councils

Around 300 BCE, a 12-year famine in Magadha led Bhadrabahu and his followers to migrate to Karnataka, while Sthulabhadra stayed. This produced the split:

Jain councils:

• First – Pataliputra, c. 300 BCE, under Sthulabhadra; the 12 Angas compiled.
• Second – Vallabhi (Gujarat), 5th century CE (c. 512 CE), under Devarddhi Kshamashramana; canon written down in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit.

Spread and contribution

Patronage: Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription, Udayagiri caves), the Western Gangas, Rashtrakutas (Amoghavarsha), Chalukyas, and in Gujarat the Solanki king Kumarapala under the influence of the scholar Hemachandra. Merchant communities in western India strongly supported Jainism because its ethics suited trade and its non-violence ruled out farming for many.

Contributions:

• Literature: Prakrit and Apabhramsha literature; early Kannada and Tamil works (e.g. Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal has Jain links; Jivaka Chintamani).
• Architecture: Dilwara temples at Mount Abu (marble, 11th–13th century), Ranakpur, Palitana (Shatrunjaya hill, hundreds of temples), Gomateshwara statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola (about 57 ft, monolithic, c. 983 CE, built by Chamundaraya, a Ganga minister; the Mahamastakabhisheka is held every 12 years), and Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves (Odisha).
• Ethics: the vows of ahimsa and aparigraha influenced Mahatma Gandhi, partly through the Jain thinker Shrimad Rajchandra.

Why Jainism did not spread as widely as Buddhism: extreme austerity, lack of royal missionary activity abroad, and its strict non-violence that limited followers' occupations. Yet it never disappeared from India, largely because of its strong lay community.

Buddhism and Jainism compared

Other heterodox schools

• Ajivikas: founded by Makkhali Gosala, once a companion of Mahavira. They believed in niyati (strict determinism/fate) – human effort cannot change destiny. Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha donated the Barabar and Nagarjuni caves (Bihar) to them. The Lomas Rishi cave shows the earliest rock-cut doorway carving.
• Charvaka/Lokayata: materialists who accepted only perception as a source of knowledge, denied the soul, afterlife and the authority of the Vedas. Associated with Brihaspati and Ajita Keshakambalin.
• Purana Kassapa (amoralism), Pakudha Kachchayana (seven eternal elements) and Sanjaya Belatthiputta (scepticism) were other teachers named in Buddhist texts.

Mains angle

A question on "the relevance of Buddhist and Jain ethics today" can draw on ahimsa (non-violence and environmental ethics), aparigraha (minimalism, sustainable consumption), anekantavada (tolerance in a plural society) and the middle path (balanced living). Link them to Gandhi and to India's Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) for a modern touch.

Mains practice question

Q. "Jainism survived in India while Buddhism declined in the land of its birth." Analyse the reasons. (150 words)

Answer framework:

• Lay community: Jainism built strong bonds between monks and lay merchants, who kept temples and monasteries alive; Buddhism depended more on large monasteries and royal patronage.
• Distinct identity: Jainism kept clear practices (strict ahimsa, fasting, distinct temples), while Mahayana Buddhism blended with Hindu practices.
• Geography and patronage: Jainism found enduring support in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka from rulers and merchants.
• Vulnerability: Buddhist universities in eastern India suffered heavily during invasions.
• Conclusion: social roots mattered more than royal favour for long survival.

Quick self-test

1. Who was the 23rd Tirthankara? *(Parshvanatha)*
2. Which Kalinga king left the Hathigumpha inscription? *(Kharavela)*
3. In which language was the Jain canon written? *(Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit)*
4. What is the Ajivika belief in fate called? *(Niyati)*
5. Which Solanki king was influenced by Hemachandra? *(Kumarapala)*

Key terms glossary

• Tirthankara: ford-maker, one of 24 great teachers.
• Kevalin / kaivalya: one who has attained, and the state of, perfect knowledge.
• Anuvrata: the milder vows for lay Jains.
• Sallekhana / santhara: ritual fasting unto death taken as a vow.
• Basadi: a Jain temple in Karnataka.
• Paryushana / Das Lakshana: the main annual festival of forgiveness and fasting.
• Niyati: the Ajivika doctrine of fate.
• Lokayata: another name for the Charvaka school, "that which is prevalent among people".
• Ardha-Magadhi: the Prakrit language of the Jain canon.

Remember: the Jain flag and symbol adopted in 1975 (Mahavira's 2,500th nirvana year) shows an open palm with the word *ahimsa*, and the motto *Parasparopagraho Jivanam* – "souls render service to one another".