Pressure Groups, NGOs and Civil Society in Governance

Concepts

Civil society is the space between the family, the market and the state, where citizens associate voluntarily to pursue shared interests. It includes NGOs, community-based organisations, trade unions, professional associations, faith groups, social movements, media and academia.

Pressure groups (interest groups) are organised groups that try to influence public policy *without* seeking to capture political power themselves. That is the key difference from political parties. They influence decisions through lobbying, petitions, media campaigns, litigation, strikes and demonstrations.

NGOs are not-for-profit, non-state organisations that deliver services, advocate, or both. In India they are registered as societies (Societies Registration Act 1860), trusts (public trusts under state laws) or Section 8 companies (Companies Act 2013).

Types of pressure groups

Political science distinguishes four kinds, following Gabriel Almond:

1. Institutional groups: formal bodies within government, such as civil service associations or military lobbies.
2. Associational groups: specialised, organised interest groups, such as FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM, AITUC, INTUC, BMS, the All India Kisan Sabha and bar councils.
3. Non-associational groups: informal groups based on kinship, caste, religion or region.
4. Anomic groups: spontaneous groups that arise from riots, protests or agitations.

India's examples by sector:

• Business: FICCI (1927), CII, ASSOCHAM.
• Trade unions: AITUC (1920, the oldest), INTUC, BMS, CITU, HMS.
• Agrarian: All India Kisan Sabha (1936), Bharatiya Kisan Union.
• Professional: Indian Medical Association, Bar Council of India.
• Students: ABVP, NSUI, SFI.
• Movements: Narmada Bachao Andolan, the Chipko movement.

Methods and channels

• Electoral: endorsing candidates and mobilising voters.
• Lobbying: meeting ministers and officials, submitting memoranda to parliamentary committees.
• Propaganda and media: shaping public opinion.
• Litigation: PIL has been powerful, for example in environmental cases.
• Direct action: protests, strikes, bandhs and dharnas.

India does not have a formal lobbying regulation law, unlike the United States (Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995). Regulating lobbying has been discussed but not enacted.

Role of pressure groups in democracy

Positive roles:

• They articulate the interests of groups and make government more responsive.
• They give policymakers expertise and feedback.
• They provide checks between elections.
• They encourage political participation and education.

Concerns:

• Unequal influence: well-funded business groups have better access than the poor.
• Narrow sectional interests can override the public interest.
• Lack of internal democracy and transparency in funding.
• Violent methods and frequent bandhs (the Supreme Court and High Courts have held that enforced bandhs violate the rights of others).
• Party affiliation: many Indian trade unions and student bodies are wings of parties, which weakens their independence.

NGOs: roles in development

1. Service delivery: education (Pratham), health, mid-day meals (Akshaya Patra).
2. Advocacy and rights: MKSS campaigned for the right to information in Rajasthan, which led to the RTI Act 2005.
3. Watchdog: monitoring elections and governance (ADR publishes analyses of candidate affidavits).
4. Innovation: piloting models that governments later scale up, such as SEWA for informal women workers.
5. Disaster relief: speed and local trust.
6. Capacity-building of communities, panchayats and SHGs.

Regulation of NGOs

• Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA) 2010, amended in 2020: registration is mandatory to receive foreign funds; administrative expenses are capped at 20% (reduced from 50%); sub-granting to other organisations is barred; funds must be received in a designated SBI account in New Delhi; Aadhaar is required for office bearers. The Supreme Court upheld the 2020 amendments in *Noel Harper v Union of India* (2022).
• Income Tax Act: registration under sections 12A/12AB and 80G for tax exemption.
• NGO-Darpan (NITI Aayog portal) gives unique IDs for organisations that apply for government grants.
• CSR: the Companies Act 2013, Section 135, requires certain profitable companies to spend 2% of average net profits on CSR. This is a major funding source for NGOs.

Issues: lack of accountability in some NGOs, misuse of funds, dependence on donors, concentration in a few states, and claims of foreign-funded agendas against development projects (a 2014 IB report alleged this, and the government cited it). There are also concerns about shrinking space for civil society through cancellation of licences.

Way forward: a national accreditation framework, transparent disclosure, a self-regulatory code (the 2007 National Policy on the Voluntary Sector suggested this), simpler compliance for small groups, and partnership rather than suspicion.

Civil society and the state: partnership models

• Government–NGO partnership in ICDS training and in TB treatment.
• Social audits with NGO support.
• Joint forest management with village committees.
• Elected Panchayati Raj Institutions working with SHGs (the Kerala Kudumbashree model).

Practice: Mains question

*"Pressure groups play a vital role in Indian democracy but their influence is uneven." Examine. (150 words)*

Hints: define pressure groups and distinguish them from parties; give examples of positive influence (RTI movement, Chipko); point to concerns (business lobbying, bandhs); suggest regulating lobbying and internal democracy.

Case studies to cite

Chipko movement (1973, Uttarakhand Himalaya). Villagers, many of them women such as Gaura Devi in the Reni episode, hugged trees to prevent commercial felling. It led to a moratorium on green felling in the Himalayan forests of Uttar Pradesh in 1980. Leaders associated with it include Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna. It shows grassroots environmental activism shaping policy.

Narmada Bachao Andolan (from the late 1980s). Led by Medha Patkar, it opposed the Sardar Sarovar dam over displacement and rehabilitation. It led the World Bank to withdraw from the project (1993) and resulted in Supreme Court litigation (the court allowed construction subject to rehabilitation conditions in 2000). It illustrates the tension between development and the rights of displaced people.

Right to Information movement. MKSS (Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan) held jan sunwais (public hearings) in rural Rajasthan in the 1990s, comparing official records with ground reality. The National Campaign for People's Right to Information carried this forward, leading to state RTI laws and then the RTI Act 2005.

Right to Food campaign. It began with PIL litigation in *PUCL v Union of India* (2001), in which the Supreme Court issued orders converting schemes such as mid-day meals into entitlements. This contributed to the National Food Security Act 2013.

Farmers' protests (2020–21). Farmers' unions organised a long protest against three farm laws, and Parliament repealed the laws in November 2021. This is an example of agrarian pressure groups influencing legislation.

Civil society and accountability tools

• Citizen report cards, pioneered by the Public Affairs Centre in Bengaluru in the 1990s: residents rate public services, and the results are publicised to push agencies to improve.
• Participatory budgeting: Pune's municipal corporation has invited citizens' suggestions for ward-level works.
• Election watch: ADR's work, through litigation, led to the requirement that candidates disclose criminal records, assets and education (*Union of India v ADR*, 2002).

A balanced conclusion

Mature democracies need both a capable state and a vibrant civil society. The aim is not to choose between government and NGOs but to build partnerships on transparency and mutual accountability. Regulation should target misuse, not dissent.

Quick self-test

1. *Is FICCI a political party or a pressure group?* It is a pressure group: an associational business body that does not contest elections.
2. *Which Act governs foreign funding of NGOs?* The FCRA 2010, as amended in 2020.
3. *Name one movement that influenced national legislation.* The MKSS-led RTI movement, which shaped the RTI Act 2005.