India–Russia Relations: Time-tested Partnership in a Changing World

Foundations

The Soviet Union supported India's industrialisation through the Bhilai (1959) and Bokaro steel plants, heavy machinery, oil exploration (ONGC) and pharmaceuticals. In the UN Security Council it vetoed resolutions on Kashmir that were unfavourable to India (from 1957 onward). It mediated the Tashkent Declaration after the 1965 war. The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation (August 1971) gave India strategic cover during the Bangladesh war.

After the USSR collapsed, the relationship was renewed:

• The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1993) replaced the 1971 treaty, without its security clause.
• The Declaration on Strategic Partnership (2000), signed during President Putin's first visit, began annual summits.
• In 2010 the partnership was elevated to a "Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership".

Pillars of cooperation

1. Defence. Russia has long been India's largest arms supplier. Its share of India's imports has fallen as India diversifies towards France, the US and Israel and promotes domestic production. Russian platforms include:

• Su-30MKI fighters (licence-built by HAL);
• T-72 and T-90 tanks;
• the aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya;
• Kilo-class submarines;
• leased nuclear submarines;
• S-400 air defence systems (deal 2018);
• AK-203 rifles produced at Korwa (Amethi) under a joint venture.

BrahMos (India's DRDO and Russia's NPOM; the name combines the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers) is a supersonic cruise missile that India now exports, first to the Philippines (2022 deal). The Inter-Governmental Commission on Military and Military-Technical Cooperation oversees ties. Exercises include INDRA (tri-service) and the multinational Vostok.

2. Nuclear energy. The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu is built with Russian VVER-1000 reactors; units 1 and 2 operate and units 3–6 are under construction. Russia also supplies fuel. The two countries are cooperating on a project in Bangladesh (Rooppur), where India participates as a third country.

3. Energy.

• ONGC Videsh holds a stake in Sakhalin-1.
• Indian companies invested in Vankor and Taas-Yuryakh oilfields.
• Rosneft acquired the Essar refinery (now Nayara Energy) in Vadinar.
• After 2022, Russian crude imports surged from a small share to one of India's largest sources, bought at a discount. This helped India manage inflation but drew Western criticism, and from 2025 US tariffs and sanctions on Russian oil companies affected the trade.

4. Space. Yuri Gagarin's flight inspired India's programme. Rakesh Sharma flew on a Soviet Soyuz mission in 1984. Russia trained the Gaganyaan astronauts at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre and supplied cryogenic engine technology in the 1990s, though this was restricted under US pressure. India developed its own cryogenic engine thereafter.

5. Trade and connectivity. Bilateral trade has grown sharply thanks to oil, reaching record levels, but it is heavily imbalanced in Russia's favour. Payment issues have arisen under sanctions (rupee–rouble trade arrangements, Special Rupee Vostro Accounts). Connectivity projects include:

• the International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC): Mumbai–Bandar Abbas (Iran)–Caspian–Russia, agreed in 2000;
• the proposed Chennai–Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor, which became operational in stages.

India also has interests in the Russian Far East (a US$1 billion credit line announced in 2019) and the Arctic (the Northern Sea Route).

Challenges

• The Russia–Ukraine war (from February 2022): India has not condemned Russia by name at the UN. It abstained on most resolutions, called for dialogue and diplomacy, and stressed respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity. PM Modi told President Putin in 2022 that "today's era is not an era of war", a phrase that was echoed in the G20 Bali declaration.
• Russia–China closeness: Russia's growing dependence on China could constrain its support for India in a crisis with China.
• Russia–Pakistan contacts, including military exercises since 2016.
• Delays in defence deliveries caused by the war and sanctions, and payment difficulties.
• Narrow economic base, excluding oil and defence.
• Indians recruited into the Russian army, an issue raised by India in 2024.

Why the relationship endures

• Russia's historical support at the UN and in defence.
• India's dependence on Russian platforms and spares.
• Russia's support for India's permanent seat on the UNSC and its NSG membership.
• India's interest in preventing a Russia–China bloc and in keeping a multipolar order.
• Shared membership of BRICS and the SCO.

Annual summits resumed after a break. In July 2024 PM Modi visited Moscow and received Russia's highest civilian honour, the Order of St Andrew the Apostle. President Putin visited India in December 2025 for the annual summit.

Practice: Mains question

*"Despite changes in global geopolitics, India–Russia relations remain significant for India's strategic autonomy." Discuss in the context of the Russia–Ukraine conflict. (250 words)*

India's diplomatic position on Ukraine: explained

India's position draws on several principles and interests.

1. Principle: support for the UN Charter, international law, and the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states. India has said so repeatedly, without naming Russia.
2. Interest: India depends on Russia for defence equipment and spares, and on energy at affordable prices for a developing economy. It also wants to keep Russia from becoming wholly dependent on China.
3. Global South concerns: the war's effects on food, fuel and fertiliser prices hurt developing countries. India highlighted this during its G20 presidency (2023). The New Delhi Leaders' Declaration reached consensus language on Ukraine.
4. Diplomacy: India's leaders have spoken to both Presidents Putin and Zelenskyy. PM Modi visited Kyiv in August 2024, the first visit by an Indian PM to independent Ukraine. India sent humanitarian aid to Ukraine and evacuated Indian students from there (Operation Ganga, 2022).

Critics in the West argued that India's oil purchases funded Russia's war. India responded that European countries themselves continued buying Russian energy and that its obligation is to secure energy for its people. India also pointed out that its purchases helped stabilise global markets.

Diversification of defence imports

According to SIPRI data, Russia's share of India's arms imports has fallen markedly over the past decade, though it remains the largest single source. France and the US have gained, along with Israel. India's indigenisation push includes positive indigenisation lists (items that may only be bought from domestic sources), defence corridors in UP and Tamil Nadu, and growing defence exports. This reduces dependence on any one supplier. However, maintaining the large existing fleet of Russian-origin systems will keep ties important for decades.

Common prelims traps

• The 1971 Indo-Soviet treaty was for 20 years; the 1993 treaty replaced it.
• Annual summits alternate between India and Russia.
• The INSTC agreement was signed by India, Iran and Russia in 2000; other members joined later.
• Kudankulam is in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.

Model answer outline

Introduction: describe the "Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership" and its historical depth.

Body:

• Continuing relevance: defence dependence and spares; energy security through discounted oil; nuclear power (Kudankulam); diplomatic support at the UN; connectivity through INSTC and the Arctic; preventing a Russia–China bloc.
• Strains: the Ukraine war and Western pressure; Russia's tilt towards China; payment problems; delivery delays; the narrow trade basket.
• India's balancing act: deepening ties with the US and Europe while keeping Russia engaged.

Conclusion: the relationship has become more transactional but remains a pillar of India's strategic autonomy. Broadening it to include trade, technology, pharmaceuticals and agriculture would make it more resilient.