Lesson 41 of 70 8 min Premium
Biotechnology, Health and Emerging Technologies
GS3 · Science and Technology
Biotechnology basics
- DNA carries genetic information. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
- Genetic engineering cuts and joins DNA from different organisms (recombinant DNA).
- GM crops: Bt cotton (2002) carries a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that kills bollworms. It is the only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India. Approvals come from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Environment Ministry.
- CRISPR-Cas9 – a precise "genetic scissors" tool for gene editing (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020).
- Stem cells can become many cell types; they are useful for regenerative medicine.
Health technology
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Vaccine | Trains the immune system using weakened or killed germs, a part of them, or mRNA instructions |
| Antibiotic resistance (AMR) | Bacteria survive drugs because of misuse or overuse – a major global threat |
| Antibiotics vs viruses | Antibiotics do not work against viruses |
| Genome sequencing | Reading the full DNA "letters" of an organism – used to track virus variants |
Information technology and emerging tech
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): machines that learn patterns from data. Machine learning is a subset of AI.
- Blockchain: a shared, tamper-resistant digital ledger. It is the base of cryptocurrencies but also of supply-chain tracking.
- Internet of Things (IoT): everyday devices connected to the internet.
- Quantum computing: uses qubits that can be in a superposition, which helps with certain problems.
- 5G: faster speeds, very low latency and many devices per area.
- Semiconductors: chips are the basis of all electronics. India is promoting chip manufacturing.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
- Patent: usually 20 years. In India, Section 3(d) of the Patents Act blocks "evergreening" (minor changes to known drugs).
- Copyright protects creative works. Trademark protects brand names. Geographical Indication (GI) tags products to a place – e.g. Darjeeling Tea (India's first GI, 2004–05).
Background: what is biotechnology?
Biotechnology uses living organisms or their parts to make products. Traditional biotech includes curd and brewing. Modern biotech began with recombinant DNA (1970s) – cutting and pasting genes – which made human insulin from bacteria possible (1982). India's Department of Biotechnology (1986) and BIRAC (2012) support research and startups.
Key techniques in simple words
| Technique | What it does | Uses |
|---|---|---|
| Recombinant DNA | Inserts a gene into another organism | Insulin, vaccines (hepatitis B), Bt cotton |
| PCR | Copies DNA millions of times | Covid testing, forensics |
| CRISPR-Cas9 | "Molecular scissors" that edit genes precisely | Disease-resistant crops, gene therapy (sickle-cell treatments approved abroad in 2023) |
| Stem cells | Cells that can become many cell types | Regenerative medicine; bone marrow transplants |
| mRNA vaccines | Teach cells to make a harmless protein that triggers immunity | Covid vaccines; India developed a self-amplifying mRNA vaccine (Gennova) |
| Genome sequencing | Reads an organism's complete DNA | Genome India Project (10,000 genomes released in 2025), disease surveillance |
| Biofortification | Breeding nutrient-rich crops | Zinc wheat, iron-rich pearl millet |
Regulation: GM organisms are approved by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Environment Protection Act. Genome-edited plants without foreign DNA (SDN-1, SDN-2) were exempted from GM rules in 2022, and India released two genome-edited rice varieties in 2025.
Health technologies and challenges
- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR): overuse of antibiotics in humans, animals and agriculture creates superbugs. India has a National Action Plan on AMR, a Red Line campaign on antibiotic packs, and a ban on colistin in animal feed (2019).
- Vaccines: India supplies a large share of the world's vaccines (Serum Institute). Covaxin (indigenous) and Covishield. Vaccine Maitri sent doses abroad.
- Digital health: CoWIN, eSanjeevani (telemedicine), ABHA health IDs.
- Biosimilars, generics – "pharmacy of the world"; the PLI for pharma to cut API dependence on China.
Emerging technologies – a quick map
| Technology | Basics | India initiatives |
|---|---|---|
| Artificial Intelligence | Machines that learn from data | IndiaAI Mission (2024, about ₹10,372 crore; GPU compute, foundation models) |
| Quantum technology | Uses superposition and entanglement for computing, communication and sensing | National Quantum Mission (2023, ₹6,003 crore) |
| Semiconductors | Chips for all electronics | India Semiconductor Mission (2021); fabs and assembly units in Gujarat and Assam |
| 5G / 6G | Fast, low-latency networks | 5G rollout (2022); Bharat 6G Vision |
| Blockchain | Tamper-proof distributed ledger | Land records pilots; CBDC (e₹) pilots by the RBI |
| Green hydrogen | Hydrogen from renewables-powered electrolysis | National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023) – 5 MMT per year by 2030 |
| Nanotechnology | Materials at 1–100 nm | Nano-urea, drug delivery |
| Drones | Unmanned aircraft | Drone Rules 2021, PLI, Kisan drones, Namo Drone Didi |
Causes and effects – ethical and social concerns
- Privacy and surveillance (AI, facial recognition) – the DPDP Act 2023.
- Bias in algorithms; deepfakes and misinformation.
- Job displacement versus new jobs.
- Biosafety – GM crops' gene flow; the ethics of gene-editing humans (the 2018 He Jiankui case in China).
- Dual use – biotech and AI can be weaponised.
- Digital divide between the rich and poor, and between urban and rural areas.
Case study: India's Covid vaccine programme
India ran one of the world's largest vaccination drives – over 220 crore doses – using the CoWIN digital platform for registration and certificates. Covaxin was developed by Bharat Biotech with ICMR-NIV. The lessons:
- the value of a public–private R&D ecosystem;
- digital public infrastructure;
- cold-chain logistics (eVIN);
- trust-building with communities (ASHA workers).
Challenges included early supply shortages and vaccine hesitancy.
Common misconceptions
- "All gene editing is GM." – SDN-1 and SDN-2 edits introduce no foreign DNA, so India regulates them differently from transgenic crops.
- "Antibiotics work against viruses." – They do not. Misuse for viral infections fuels AMR.
- "AI will simply replace all jobs." – It will change tasks; reskilling and policy shape the outcome.
How UPSC asks it
Prelims frequently asks science basics (CRISPR, mRNA, PCR, stem cells), missions, and regulatory bodies. Mains themes include AMR, the ethics of gene editing, AI governance, semiconductor self-reliance, and biotech for agriculture and health.
Mains answer framework
Q-type: "What are the opportunities and challenges of artificial intelligence for governance in India?"
- Intro: IndiaAI Mission; "AI for All".
- Opportunities: service delivery (Bhashini – language translation), agriculture advisories, health diagnostics, justice (SUPACE), fraud detection.
- Challenges: data quality, privacy, bias, accountability, skills, compute, misinformation.
- Way forward: risk-based regulation, DPDP Act compliance, ethics guidelines (NITI's Responsible AI), public compute, skilling.
- Conclusion: AI should be "human-centric and inclusive".
Emerging technologies and governance questions
| Technology | Opportunity | Governance issue |
|---|---|---|
| Gene editing (CRISPR) | Disease-resistant crops, gene therapy | Biosafety, ethics of germline editing |
| Artificial intelligence | Diagnosis, agriculture advisories, translation | Bias, privacy, accountability, jobs |
| Quantum technology | Secure communication, computing | Cost, skills; National Quantum Mission (2023) |
| Drones | Crop spraying, delivery, surveillance | Airspace rules (Drone Rules, 2021), privacy |
| Semiconductors | Strategic autonomy in electronics | Capital intensity; India Semiconductor Mission (2021) |
Biotechnology in agriculture
Bt cotton is the only genetically modified crop approved for commercial cultivation in India (since 2002). The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Environment Ministry approves GM organisms. Debates continue over GM mustard, biosafety and farmers' seed rights.
Mains practice question
Q. How can India harness AI while managing its risks? Outline: use cases in health, agriculture and governance; risks of bias, privacy violations and misinformation; need for data protection (Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023), standards for high-risk uses, skilling, and public compute and datasets.
Check your understanding
- What is a vaccine? A preparation that trains the immune system to recognise a pathogen without causing the disease.
- What is antimicrobial resistance? The ability of microbes to survive drugs meant to kill them, worsened by overuse of antibiotics.
⚡ Quick revision
- Bt cotton = only commercial GM crop in India; GEAC approves
- CRISPR = gene editing; antibiotics do not kill viruses
- Patent term 20 years; Section 3(d) stops evergreening
- First GI tag: Darjeeling Tea
The statutory committee under the Union Environment Ministry that appraises proposals for large-scale use and environmental release of genetically engineered organisms and products, including field trials and commercial approval of GM crops, under the 1989 Rules made under the Environment (Protection) Act.Gene editing is the precise alteration of an organism's DNA at chosen sites; CRISPR-Cas9, adapted from a bacterial immune system, is the most widely used tool, guiding an enzyme to cut DNA so that genes can be disabled, corrected or changed.Immunity is the body's ability to resist infection; vaccines are biological preparations that safely train the immune system to recognise a pathogen, so that it can respond quickly if exposed later.The ability of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites to survive medicines that once killed them, making infections harder to treat; the WHO lists it among the top global public health threats.The field of building computer systems that perform tasks usually needing human intelligence, such as recognising speech and images, translating languages, making predictions and generating text, mostly by learning patterns from large amounts of data.A shared digital ledger in which records are grouped into blocks linked by cryptography and copied across many computers, making past entries very hard to alter without the network's agreement; it underlies cryptocurrencies and many other uses.Technologies based on quantum effects; India runs a National Quantum Mission. Full coverage: IT, Artificial Intelligence, Quantum, Semiconductors and IPR.5G is the fifth generation of mobile network technology, offering much higher speeds, very low delay and support for huge numbers of connected devices; India launched 5G in October 2022 as part of a telecom sector now governed by the Telecommunications Act, 2023.An umbrella law passed by Parliament in 1986 that gives the Central Government wide powers to protect and improve the environment, set standards, regulate industries and hazardous substances, and issue binding directions.A set of central schemes launched from 2020 that pay manufacturers a cash incentive, usually a percentage of the additional sales they make in India over a base year, to attract large-scale production in chosen sectors.
