Sultanate Administration, Economy, Society and Indo-Islamic Culture

Nature of the Sultanate state

The Sultanate was in theory an Islamic state: the Sultan ruled according to the Sharia, recognised the Caliph as the head of the Muslim world, and was advised by the ulema (religious scholars). In practice, Sultans made their own regulations, called zawabit, to deal with Indian conditions, and the majority of their subjects were non-Muslims. Historians therefore describe it as a military-bureaucratic state whose policy was shaped more by political needs than by religious law. Alauddin Khalji openly told the qazi Mughisuddin that he made laws for the good of the state without asking whether they agreed with the Sharia.

Central administration

The Sultan was the head of the state, the army and the judiciary. He was helped by ministers:

Barid-i-Mumalik headed the intelligence system.

Provincial and local administration

• The empire was divided into iqtas (later called wilayats or provinces) under muqtis or walis. The muqti collected revenue, maintained troops, kept order and sent the surplus (fawazil) to the centre.
• Iqtas were divided into shiqs (under the shiqdar) and parganas (under the amil). The village remained the basic unit, managed by the khut, muqaddam (headman) and patwari (accountant), along with the chaudhari at the pargana level.
• Iqta system evolution: under Iltutmish – transferable, non-hereditary; Balban and Alauddin – strict audits; Firuz – hereditary, which weakened control. The iqta combined revenue collection with military service, linking the provinces to the centre.

Land revenue and economy

• Main taxes: kharaj (land tax, from one-third to one-half of produce), jizya (on non-Muslims, in return for protection and exemption from military service), khams (one-fifth of war booty), and zakat (religious tax on Muslims).
• Khalisa land was administered directly by the state; its revenue went to the royal treasury.
• Alauddin introduced measurement of land; Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq lowered demand; Firuz Tughlaq restricted taxes to those allowed by Islamic law and built canals.
• Agriculture: new crops like improved varieties of sugarcane, use of the Persian wheel (saqiya) for irrigation, and expansion of cultivation.
• Crafts and technology: the spinning wheel (charkha) and the carder's bow (dhunia) spread, boosting cotton textiles; paper came into wide use; sericulture (silk) spread in Bengal; the arch and dome and lime mortar changed construction.
• Trade and towns: Delhi became one of the largest cities in the Islamic world. Trade with Central Asia, Persia and the Arab world grew. Multanis and Gujarati merchants (banias) dominated trade and finance; hundi (bills of exchange) helped long-distance commerce.
• Currency: the silver tanka (about 175 grains) and copper jital; 48 jitals = 1 tanka in Alauddin's time.

Society

• Nobility: Turkish, Persian, Afghan and later Indian Muslims; non-Muslim chiefs (rais, ranas) continued as intermediaries.
• Ulema influenced law and education; Sufis (Chishti, Suhrawardi) gained wide popular following.
• Hindu society continued with caste rules; women were secluded among the upper classes (purdah); sati and child marriage existed among some groups, as noted by Ibn Battuta.
• Slavery was widespread: slaves were used in the household, army and administration, and some rose to become Sultans.

Indo-Islamic architecture

Turkish rulers brought new techniques and styles, which mixed with Indian craftsmanship:

• True arch and dome (using the keystone and lime mortar), replacing the Indian trabeate (beam-and-bracket) style.
• Minarets, calligraphy (Quranic verses), arabesque (geometric and floral patterns), and jaalis (lattice screens).
• Since figures were avoided, decoration relied on patterns and inscriptions, while Indian artisans added motifs like the bell, lotus and swastika.

Regional styles also flourished: Jaunpur (Atala mosque, Sharqis), Bengal (Adina mosque, brick, curved roofs), Gujarat (Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad, rich carving), Malwa (Mandu – Jahaz Mahal, Hoshang Shah's tomb in marble), and the Bahmani/Deccan style (Gol Gumbaz later).

Language, literature and music

• Persian was the language of the court; Sanskrit and regional languages continued.
• Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), the "Tuti-i-Hind" (parrot of India), wrote in Persian and early Hindavi; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya; credited with developing qawwali, khayal and tarana, and with the sitar and tabla in popular tradition (historians doubt the last claim). He wrote Khazain-ul-Futuh (Alauddin's conquests), Tughlaq Nama and Nuh Sipihr (praising India).
• Historians: Minhaj-us-Siraj (Tabaqat-i-Nasiri), Ziauddin Barani (Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, Fatawa-i-Jahandari), Shams-i-Siraj Afif, Isami (Futuh-us-Salatin).
• Urdu developed as a camp language mixing Persian and local dialects; Dakhni grew in the Deccan.
• Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian under Firuz Tughlaq and Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir (Budshah), who was known for tolerance.

Mains practice question

Q. "Indo-Islamic architecture was a true synthesis of Indian and Persian traditions." Illustrate. (150 words)

Framework: Persian contribution (arch, dome, minarets, calligraphy, lime mortar); Indian contribution (craftsmen, motifs, stone carving, chhatris, brackets); examples – Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza, Lodi tombs, regional styles; conclusion leading to Mughal synthesis.

Quick self-test

1. Who headed the Diwan-i-Arz? *(Ariz-i-Mumalik)*
2. What were the Sultan's own regulations called? *(Zawabit)*
3. Who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi? *(Ziauddin Barani)*
4. Which building first shows the double dome? *(Lodi tombs)*
5. Who was called Tuti-i-Hind? *(Amir Khusrau)*

Sufism in the Sultanate period

Sufism – the mystical tradition of Islam – became the most important bridge between Islam and Indian society in this period. Sufis organised themselves into orders called silsilas, led by a master (pir or shaikh) who trained disciples (murids) in a hospice (khanqah).

• Chishti silsila: founded in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti at Ajmer (late 12th century). His successors were Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi), Baba Farid (Pakpattan; his verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi; saw seven Sultans and kept away from the court) and Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi. The Chishtis stressed love, simplicity, service to the poor, use of music (sama) and distance from rulers.
• Suhrawardi silsila: founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi; in India by Bahauddin Zakariya at Multan. Unlike the Chishtis, they accepted state patronage and posts.
• Later orders include the Naqshbandi (orthodox; Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in the Mughal age), Qadiri and Firdausi (Bihar).

Sufi shrines (dargahs) attracted people of all faiths, and their use of local languages and music helped shape a composite culture.

Key terms glossary

• Zawabit: state regulations made by the Sultan.
• Fawazil: surplus revenue sent by the muqti to the centre.
• Silsila, khanqah, dargah, sama: Sufi order, hospice, shrine and devotional music.