The Delhi Sultanate: Five Dynasties and their Rulers (1206–1526)

Overview

The Delhi Sultanate lasted 320 years (1206–1526) under five dynasties. It brought much of north India – and for a time the Deccan – under a single centralised authority, introduced new systems of administration and revenue, and created a new Indo-Islamic culture in architecture, language and music.

The Mamluk (Slave) dynasty

The name "slave dynasty" is a misnomer: the rulers were mamluks (slaves trained as soldiers and administrators), and three different families ruled. Historians prefer "Early Turkish rulers" or "Ilbari Turks".

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206–1210) – a slave of Muhammad Ghori. Called Lakh Baksh ("giver of lakhs") for his generosity. Started the Qutb Minar (named after the Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki) and built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi and the Adhai Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer. Died after falling from his horse while playing chaugan (polo) at Lahore.

Iltutmish (1211–1236) – the real consolidator of the Sultanate:

• moved the capital from Lahore to Delhi;
• obtained an investiture (letter of recognition) from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad (1229);
• saved the young state from Chenghiz Khan (1221) by refusing shelter to the fleeing Khwarizmi prince Jalaluddin Mangbarni;
• created the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (the Forty) – a group of loyal Turkish nobles;
• introduced the iqta system – revenue assignments to officers in place of salary;
• issued the silver tanka and copper jital – the basic coins of the Sultanate;
• completed the Qutb Minar.

Razia Sultan (1236–1240) – the only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She discarded the veil, held court openly and promoted the Abyssinian Jamaluddin Yaqut, which angered the Turkish nobles. She was overthrown and killed.

Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266–1287) – a former member of the Forty who broke the power of the Forty. His theory of kingship: the king is the shadow of God on earth (Zil-i-Ilahi). He introduced Persian court customs – sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing the king's feet) – and the Persian festival Nauroz. Created a separate military department, the Diwan-i-Arz, and a network of spies (barids). Followed a policy of "blood and iron" against rebels and Mewatis, and consolidated rather than expanded, because of the Mongol threat.

The Khaljis

The "Khalji revolution" (1290) ended the monopoly of Turkish nobles; power opened to Indian Muslims and others.

Jalaluddin Khalji – mild ruler; murdered by his nephew Alauddin in 1296.

Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) – the most powerful Sultan:

• Mongol defence: repelled several Mongol invasions; built a new capital Siri and repaired forts on the north-west frontier.
• Conquests: Gujarat (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa, and Deccan expeditions under Malik Kafur – Devagiri (Yadavas), Warangal (Kakatiyas), Dwarasamudra (Hoysalas) and Madurai (Pandyas). Southern kingdoms were made tributaries rather than annexed.
• Market reforms: fixed the prices of grain, cloth, horses and other goods; set up separate markets (for grain, cloth, horses and slaves) under the Shahna-i-Mandi; maintained state granaries; spies (munhiyan) watched merchants; punishments for short-weighing were severe. The aim was to maintain a large standing army on low salaries.
• Army: the dagh (branding of horses) and huliya (descriptive roll of soldiers) to stop fraud; soldiers paid in cash.
• Revenue: land revenue raised to half the produce, based on measurement (masahat) of land; abolished many privileges of intermediaries (khuts, muqaddams, chaudharis).
• Buildings: Alai Darwaza (1311), the gateway of the Qutb complex – the first building with true arches and a true dome in India; Hauz-i-Khas (tank); Siri fort.
• Amir Khusrau was his court poet.

The Tughlaqs

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325) – built Tughlaqabad; reduced land revenue demand; quarrelled with Nizamuddin Auliya ("Hanuz Dilli dur ast" – Delhi is still far away).

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) – a brilliant but impractical ruler. His five famous experiments:

1. Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) in 1327, to control the south; later reversed, with great suffering.
2. Token currency (1329–30): bronze/copper coins given the value of silver; massive forgery followed and the scheme was withdrawn.
3. Taxation in the Doab increased during a famine, causing revolt.
4. Khurasan expedition – a large army raised and then disbanded without fighting.
5. Qarachil (Kumaon hills) expedition – a disaster.

He also set up an agriculture department, the Diwan-i-Kohi, and gave taccavi loans to farmers. Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, served as his qazi of Delhi and wrote the Rihla. Revolts in his reign led to the rise of Vijayanagara (1336) and the Bahmani kingdom (1347).

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) – a welfare-oriented but orthodox ruler:

• built canals (the Western Yamuna canal), towns (Firozabad, Hisar, Jaunpur, Fatehabad), hospitals (Dar-ul-Shifa) and an employment bureau;
• created the Diwan-i-Khairat (charity for poor Muslims, marriage of daughters) and Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves);
• made iqtas hereditary and imposed jizya on brahmanas, which earlier rulers had exempted;
• moved two Ashokan pillars (Topra and Meerut) to Delhi;
• abolished many illegal taxes and limited taxes to four allowed by Islamic law.

Timur's invasion (1398) under Nasiruddin Mahmud sacked Delhi and shattered the Tughlaq state.

Sayyids and Lodis

• Sayyids (1414–1451): Khizr Khan ruled as Timur's deputy; a weak dynasty.
• Lodis (1451–1526): the first Afghan dynasty. Bahlul Lodi ruled like a first among equals with Afghan nobles. Sikandar Lodi founded Agra (1504), introduced the gaz-i-Sikandari (a measuring yard of 32 digits), and wrote Persian poetry under the name Gulrukhi. Ibrahim Lodi alienated nobles; Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga invited Babur, who defeated Ibrahim at the First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526).

Mains practice question

Q. "Alauddin Khalji's market reforms were driven more by military needs than by concern for the people." Discuss. (150 words)

Framework: Mongol threat and need for a large army; price control mechanism; benefits to the urban poor (cheap grain); costs to peasants (high revenue demand) and merchants (coercion); collapse after his death; conclusion – a military-fiscal measure with some welfare side effects.

Quick self-test

1. Who introduced the iqta system? *(Iltutmish)*
2. Who introduced sijda and paibos? *(Balban)*
3. Which building has the first true arch and dome? *(Alai Darwaza)*
4. Which traveller served Muhammad bin Tughlaq? *(Ibn Battuta)*
5. Who founded Agra? *(Sikandar Lodi)*

Why the Sultanate succeeded – and why it declined

Reasons for Turkish success:

• Mounted archers and fast cavalry using the iron stirrup and better horses from Central Asia;
• unity of command and a professional, salaried army, compared with feudal levies of Rajput chiefs;
• iqta system that tied revenue to military service;
• divisions among Indian rulers, and caste rules that limited who could fight.

Reasons for decline:

• Over-expansion under the Khaljis and Tughlaqs, which the centre could not hold;
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's failed experiments and the revolts they caused;
• Hereditary iqtas under Firuz, which weakened central control;
• Timur's invasion (1398);
• the rise of regional kingdoms – Bengal, Jaunpur (Sharqis), Malwa, Gujarat, Kashmir, Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis;
• Afghan nobles' independence under the Lodis, which invited Babur.

Key terms glossary

• Iqta / iqtadar (muqti): revenue assignment and its holder.
• Tanka / jital: silver and copper coins.
• Shahna-i-Mandi: market superintendent.
• Zil-i-Ilahi: shadow of God.
• Khuts, muqaddams: village headmen and intermediaries.
• Taccavi: agricultural loans.