Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms of the Deccan

Two powers born in the same decade

The revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq in the Deccan produced two great kingdoms within a decade: Vijayanagara (1336) south of the Tungabhadra and the Bahmani kingdom (1347) to its north. For nearly two centuries the two fought over the fertile Raichur doab – the land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers – as well as the Marathwada region and the Krishna–Godavari delta. Their rivalry shaped the history of the Deccan until the Battle of Talikota (1565).

Vijayanagara empire (1336–1565/1646)

Foundation: brothers Harihara I and Bukka I of the Sangama family founded the kingdom in 1336 with its capital at Vijayanagara (Hampi) on the Tungabhadra. Tradition says they had served the Kakatiyas or Hoysalas, were captured by the Tughlaqs, and were inspired by the sage Vidyaranya (Madhava) to restore Hindu rule.

Four dynasties ruled:

Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) – the greatest ruler:

• defeated the Bahmani successor states and the Gajapatis of Odisha; captured Raichur (1520);
• maintained good relations with the Portuguese (governor Albuquerque), who supplied horses;
• a great patron of Telugu literature; himself wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu (on Andal and on statecraft) and Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit;
• his court had the Ashtadiggajas (eight great poets), including Allasani Peddana (called Andhra Kavitapitamaha), and the witty Tenali Ramakrishna of popular legend;
• built the Vitthala temple and the Hazara Rama temple at Hampi, and the town of Nagalapura;
• titles: Andhra Bhoja, Abhinava Bhoja.

Battle of Talikota (Rakshasa–Tangadi), 1565: the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar united against Vijayanagara and defeated Rama Raya. The capital Hampi was sacked for months. The empire survived in a smaller form under the Aravidus.

Vijayanagara administration and economy

• The king was advised by a council of ministers; the empire was divided into rajyas/mandalams (provinces), nadus, sthalas and villages.
• Nayankara system: military chiefs called nayakas received territories (amaram) and had to maintain troops and pay a part of revenue to the king. Over time the nayakas became powerful; after 1565 the Nayakas of Madurai, Thanjavur and Ikkeri became independent.
• Ayagar system: village servants (twelve functionaries such as the accountant, watchman and carpenter) were given tax-free land for their services.
• Revenue: land tax was about one-sixth of produce in theory; there were also taxes on property, trade, professions and even marriages; Krishnadevaraya abolished the marriage tax.
• Economy: irrigation by large tanks and canals (the Tungabhadra channels); temple towns as economic centres; trade through Bhatkal, Calicut and Goa; horses imported from Arabia and Persia were vital for the army. Coins: the gold varaha (pagoda) and pana.
• Society: temples were centres of social life; devadasis were attached to temples; sati was practised (Nuniz notes it); women served as wrestlers, accountants and palace guards in some accounts.

Foreign travellers: Ibn Battuta (1333, before foundation), Nicolo de Conti (Italian, 1420, Devaraya I), Abdur Razzaq (Persian ambassador, 1443, Devaraya II), Domingo Paes (Portuguese, under Krishnadevaraya; compared Hampi to Rome) and Fernao Nuniz (horse trader, under Achyutaraya).

Vijayanagara architecture

• The Vijayanagara style developed the Dravida tradition with tall raya gopurams (royal gateways), kalyana mandapas (marriage halls), richly carved pillars (with rearing horses – yali), and musical pillars in the Vitthala temple.
• The stone chariot in the Vitthala temple complex is a famous symbol of Karnataka (it appears on the ₹50 note).
• The Lotus Mahal in the zenana enclosure blends Indo-Islamic arches with Hindu motifs.
• Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986).

The Bahmani kingdom (1347–1527)

Foundation: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu) founded the kingdom in 1347 with its capital at Gulbarga; later moved to Bidar by Ahmad Shah Wali.

Key figures:

• Firuz Shah Bahmani – learned ruler; built an observatory near Daulatabad; took Hindus into administration.
• Mahmud Gawan (prime minister, 1463–1481) – a Persian merchant-scholar. He:
• reorganised the kingdom into eight provinces (tarafs);
• measured land and fixed revenue;
• curbed the power of governors by placing some districts under direct central control;
• built a famous madrasa at Bidar (three storeys) in Persian style;
• captured Goa and conquered Konkan.

He was a victim of the rivalry between the Deccanis (local Muslims) and Afaqis/Pardesis (newcomers from Persia, Central Asia), and was executed in 1481 on false charges. His death hastened the kingdom's decline.

• Russian traveller Afanasy Nikitin visited the Bahmani kingdom (1469–72).

Successor states (the five Deccan Sultanates):

Deccani culture: the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur (tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah) has one of the largest domes in the world and a famous whispering gallery. Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote Kitab-i-Nauras, songs in Dakhni praising Saraswati and the Prophet, and was called Jagadguru. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded Hyderabad (1591) and built the Charminar; he wrote poetry in Dakhni Urdu. Deccani miniature painting blended Persian and local styles.

Mains practice question

Q. "The rivalry between Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis was more political and economic than religious." Discuss. (150 words)

Framework: contest for the Raichur doab, ports and horse trade; alliances across religious lines (Vijayanagara used Muslim soldiers; Deccan Sultanates allied with Hindu chiefs; Rama Raya interfered in Sultanates' politics); Talikota as a coalition against an overbearing power; cultural synthesis on both sides (Lotus Mahal, Ibrahim Adil Shah II).

Quick self-test

1. Who wrote Amuktamalyada? *(Krishnadevaraya)*
2. Which Portuguese traveller compared Hampi to Rome? *(Domingo Paes)*
3. Who built the Bidar madrasa? *(Mahmud Gawan)*
4. Who wrote Kitab-i-Nauras? *(Ibrahim Adil Shah II)*
5. Who founded Hyderabad? *(Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah)*

Hampi today: what a visitor sees

The ruins of Hampi spread over about 26 sq km of boulder-strewn landscape. They are usually divided into two zones:

• the Sacred Centre along the river – the Virupaksha temple (still in worship), the Vitthala temple with its stone chariot and musical pillars, and the Krishna and Achyutaraya temples with their long bazaar streets;
• the Royal Centre – the Mahanavami Dibba (a great platform from which kings watched the Mahanavami/Dussehra festival), the stepped tank, the Lotus Mahal, the Elephant Stables with domed chambers, and the Hazara Rama temple, whose walls show processions of horses, elephants and dancers.

The site shows how the empire combined religion, kingship and display, and how it borrowed freely from Indo-Islamic building techniques.

Why Vijayanagara matters for the exam

• It shows how a large Hindu state governed a diverse population, used Muslim soldiers and traded with the Portuguese.
• The nayaka system shaped later south Indian kingdoms.
• It patronised literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.
• Its architecture influenced temples across south India.

Key terms glossary

• Amaram / amaranayaka: land assigned to a nayaka and its holder.
• Ayagar: village servants paid in land.
• Varaha (pagoda): gold coin.
• Taraf / tarafdar: Bahmani province and its governor.
• Afaqi / Deccani: newcomer and local Muslim nobles.