Women, Urbanisation and Globalisation

Role of women and women's organisations

Challenges: low female labour-force participation, unpaid care work, gender-based violence, a skewed child sex ratio and the digital gender divide.

Constitutional and legal support:

• Article 15(3) – special provisions for women and children.
• Article 39(d) – equal pay for equal work (a DPSP).
• 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) – at least one-third of seats in panchayats and municipalities reserved for women (many states give 50%).
• Laws: Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005; Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act 2013 (built on the Vishaka guidelines, 1997).
• Self-help groups (SHGs) under the National Rural Livelihoods Mission empower rural women financially.

Urbanisation

• Urban share rose to 31.1% in 2011. People move for jobs, education and services ("pull") and because of rural distress ("push").
• Problems: slums, housing shortages, traffic, pollution, water stress, floods and the informal economy.
• Good responses: planned "smart" growth, public transport, affordable housing and empowered urban local bodies (74th Amendment).

Globalisation and Indian society

Secularism – the Indian model

Western secularism (e.g. France) means a strict separation of religion and state. Indian secularism means equal respect for all religions ("sarva dharma sambhava"). The state can intervene to reform practices – for example, temple entry or banning untouchability.

Background: three big forces of change

Women's empowerment, rapid urbanisation and globalisation are the forces most often examined in GS1 "Indian Society". They are linked: cities and global markets create new jobs and freedoms, but also new insecurities.

Role and status of women – data first

Legal framework:

• the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961);
• the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005);
• the POSH Act (2013) and the Vishaka guidelines (1997);
• the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 – equal coparcenary rights for daughters;
• the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 – 26 weeks of paid leave;
• the criminal law reforms after 2012 (Justice Verma Committee).

Barriers:

• patriarchal norms and unpaid care work (time-use surveys show women spend several times more time than men on it);
• safety in public spaces and transport;
• occupational segregation; wage gaps;
• low asset ownership;
• the digital divide.

What works:

• Self-help groups (DAY-NRLM – millions of women members) as a ladder to credit and leadership;
• education of girls (Beti Bachao Beti Padhao; bicycle schemes in Bihar);
• ownership (joint pattas in PMAY houses);
• childcare, and safe and cheap transport.

Urbanisation – the facts

India's urban share was 31.1% in 2011 (377 million) and is projected to approach 40% by 2030. Urban growth comes from natural increase, migration and reclassification of villages into "census towns" (1,362 in 2001 → 3,894 in 2011).

Problems:

• slums (about 17% of urban households in 2011 lived in slums);
• housing shortage;
• water stress and flooding (Chennai 2015, Bengaluru 2022);
• air pollution;
• traffic;
• weak urban local bodies (the 74th Amendment is only partly implemented; low own-revenues);
• informal jobs.

Schemes:

• Smart Cities Mission and AMRUT (water and sewerage);
• PMAY-Urban (housing);
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban);
• PM SVANidhi (street vendors' loans).

Key ideas:

• urban sprawl vs compact cities;
• transit-oriented development;
• "sponge cities" for floods;
• municipal bonds (Pune, Ahmedabad).

Globalisation – effects on Indian society

Glocalisation – global brands adapting to local tastes (a vegetarian menu) – shows that culture is not simply replaced but mixed.

Case study: Kudumbashree, Kerala

Started in 1998 as a state poverty eradication mission, Kudumbashree organises women into neighbourhood groups linked to panchayats. Women run micro-enterprises, canteens, solid waste collection (Haritha Karma Sena) and even the state's "Janakeeya Hotels" (low-cost meals). It shows how collective action + local government + markets can empower women and improve urban and rural services together. Its model influenced the national rural livelihoods mission.

Common misconceptions

• "Urbanisation in India is mainly due to migration." – Natural increase is the largest component, followed by reclassification and migration.
• "Globalisation only benefits the rich." – It created mass jobs in services and reduced poverty, but its gains are uneven – both statements are part of a balanced view.
• "Women's empowerment is just a law-and-order issue." – It is also economic (ownership, jobs), social (norms) and political (representation).

How UPSC asks it

Mains themes include the effects of globalisation on women and the elderly, the problems of urbanisation and remedies, why female labour-force participation is low, and the role of SHGs. Prelims picks constitutional amendments and schemes.

Mains answer framework

Q-type: "Discuss the challenges of rapid urbanisation in India and suggest measures."

• Introduction: urban share, growth trend, cities as engines of GDP.
• Challenges: housing and slums, water and flooding, pollution, transport, governance and finance of urban local bodies, informality and inclusion.
• Measures: strengthen ULBs (finances, staff, elected mayors), planning (TOD, master plans with climate risk), housing (rental housing), basic services, safety for women.
• Conclusion: "cities for people" – inclusive, sustainable urbanisation (SDG 11).

Effects of globalisation on Indian society

Urbanisation and social change

Cities loosen caste and kinship controls and create new identities based on occupation and neighbourhood. At the same time, they produce new problems: informal settlements, loneliness, pressure on the elderly in nuclear families, and spatial segregation. Census 2011 recorded about 31% of India's population as urban.

Mains practice question

Q. How has globalisation affected women in India? Outline: new employment and education opportunities; financial independence for some; but also insecure, low-paid work, double burden of paid and care work, and new forms of objectification in media; the impact differs by class, region and education.

Check your understanding

1. What is the "feminisation of agriculture"? As men migrate to towns, women increasingly carry out farm work, often without land rights.
2. What is a "smart city"? An urban area using technology and planning to improve services; India's Smart Cities Mission began in 2015.