Lesson 36 of 45 7 min Premium
Environmental Ethics and Bioethics
GS4 · Ethics in Contemporary Issues
Two fast-growing fields
Environmental ethics asks what duties humans have toward nature, other species and future generations. Bioethics asks what is right in medicine, health and the life sciences – from consent in clinical trials to gene editing and end-of-life care. Both fields appear in GS4 case studies (mining in forests, pollution, organ trafficking, pandemic triage) and essays.
Environmental ethics: core approaches
| Approach | Who has moral value? | Thinkers / examples |
|---|---|---|
| Anthropocentrism | Only humans; nature is valuable for human use | Traditional economics; "wise use" |
| Biocentrism | All living beings | Albert Schweitzer's "reverence for life"; Paul Taylor |
| Ecocentrism | Whole ecosystems, species, rivers, mountains | Aldo Leopold's land ethic (*A Sand County Almanac*, 1949): "A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community" |
| Deep ecology | All life has intrinsic value; reduce human impact | Arne Naess (1973) |
| Ecofeminism | Links domination of nature and of women | Vandana Shiva; Chipko women |
| Animal ethics | Sentient animals | Peter Singer (*Animal Liberation*, 1975); Tom Regan |
Key principles
- Intergenerational equity – the present generation must not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs (Brundtland Report, *Our Common Future*, 1987).
- Polluter pays principle – those who pollute bear the cost of remedy (*Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action*, 1996; *Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum*, 1996).
- Precautionary principle – lack of full scientific certainty should not be a reason to postpone measures against serious harm (Rio Declaration, 1992, Principle 15; adopted in *Vellore*).
- Public trust doctrine – the State holds natural resources in trust (*M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath*, 1997).
- Sustainable development – balance of economic, social and environmental goals.
- Climate justice – those least responsible suffer most; CBDR-RC.
- Environmental justice – poor and tribal communities should not bear the burden of pollution and displacement.
Indian ethos and environment
- Vedic and Upanishadic reverence for rivers, mountains and forests; the Prithvi Sukta of the Atharva Veda ("Earth is my mother, I am her son").
- Bishnoi community – in 1730, Amrita Devi and 363 Bishnois of Khejarli (Rajasthan) gave their lives to protect khejri trees.
- Chipko movement (1973) – women of Uttarakhand hugged trees; led by Gaura Devi, Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt.
- Appiko movement (1983) in Karnataka; Silent Valley (1970s–80s) in Kerala.
- Sacred groves – community-protected forests across India.
- Constitution: Article 48A (State shall protect and improve the environment) and Article 51A(g) (duty of citizens to protect the environment and have compassion for living creatures), both added by the 42nd Amendment (1976); Article 21 includes the right to a healthy environment; the Supreme Court recognised a right against the adverse effects of climate change (*M. K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India*, 2024, the Great Indian Bustard case).
- Rights of nature – the Uttarakhand High Court declared the Ganga and Yamuna "living entities" (2017), though the Supreme Court stayed the order.
- Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment, 2022) – individual behaviour change toward sustainable consumption.
Ethical dilemmas in environment
- Development vs conservation – mining, dams, highways in forests and tiger corridors.
- Livelihoods vs protection – tribal rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 vs strict protected areas.
- Present vs future – coal power for cheap electricity today vs climate impact tomorrow.
- Human–wildlife conflict – crop raiding by elephants, leopard attacks; culling vs coexistence.
- Global vs national – emission cuts vs development needs.
- The Niyamgiri case (2013) – the Supreme Court let gram sabhas of the Dongria Kondh decide on bauxite mining; all 12 rejected it. A model of consent and environmental justice.
Bioethics: core principles
Beauchamp and Childress (*Principles of Biomedical Ethics*, 1979) gave four principles:
- Autonomy – respect the patient's informed choices (informed consent).
- Beneficence – act in the patient's best interest.
- Non-maleficence – "first, do no harm".
- Justice – fair distribution of health resources.
Historical milestones: the Nuremberg Code (1947) after Nazi experiments; the Declaration of Helsinki (1964) on research; the Belmont Report (1979) after the Tuskegee syphilis study in the USA.
Bioethical issues in India
| Issue | Ethical question | Law / policy |
|---|---|---|
| Clinical trials | Consent of poor and illiterate subjects | New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019; ICMR guidelines (2017) |
| Organ transplantation | Trafficking, exploitation of poor donors | Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act, 1994 (amended 2011) |
| Surrogacy | Commercial exploitation of women | Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 – only altruistic surrogacy |
| ART / IVF | Embryo rights, commercialisation | ART (Regulation) Act, 2021 |
| Sex-selective abortion | Gender discrimination | PCPNDT Act, 1994 |
| Abortion | Women's autonomy vs foetal life | MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 – up to 24 weeks for some categories |
| End-of-life | Dignity in dying | *Common Cause v. Union of India* (2018) – passive euthanasia and living wills allowed; guidelines simplified in 2023 |
| Mental health | Rights of patients | Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 – decriminalised attempt to suicide (presumption of stress) |
| Gene editing | Designer babies, safety | ICMR guidelines; global concern after the 2018 CRISPR-baby case in China |
| Pandemic triage | Who gets scarce ICU beds and vaccines | Priority to health workers, elderly, comorbid |
Applying ethics in health administration
- Informed consent in simple language and local dialect.
- Equity in access – Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY, free drugs, district hospitals.
- Confidentiality of patient records (HIV status, mental health).
- Avoiding conflicts of interest – doctors and pharma industry; the Uniform Code for Pharmaceutical Marketing Practices (2024) restricts gifts to doctors.
- Compassion in emergency care – no refusal of emergency treatment (*Parmanand Katara*, 1989).
Worked example: a mine near a tiger corridor
A company seeks clearance for a coal mine that would supply a power plant serving lakhs of homes, but the site lies on a tiger corridor and includes forest land used by tribal villages.
- Anthropocentric utilitarian view: cheap power and jobs justify the mine.
- Ecocentric and precautionary view: loss of the corridor could isolate tiger populations; irreversible harm should be avoided.
- Justice view: tribal communities have rights under the Forest Rights Act and PESA; gram sabha consent is required.
- Balanced decision: assess alternatives (other blocks, renewables), insist on an independent wildlife study, require gram sabha consent, and if approved, mandate mitigation (wildlife passages, compensatory afforestation, rehabilitation). If the corridor cannot be saved, the precautionary principle points to refusal.
Worked example: a clinical trial in a district hospital
A pharma company wants to run a drug trial in a district hospital serving poor patients. Ethical requirements: registration with the Clinical Trials Registry–India; approval by an ethics committee; audio-visual recording of informed consent for vulnerable participants (a rule introduced after concerns about trials in Madhya Pradesh); compensation for trial-related injury; no inducements that override free choice; and access to the drug for participants after the trial if it proves effective. The officer's role is to ensure that poverty does not become a reason for exploitation.
Mains practice question
"The precautionary principle and intergenerational equity should guide development decisions in India." Discuss with reference to environmental ethics and suitable examples. (250 words)
Answer framework
- Approaches: anthropocentric to ecocentric.
- Principles: precautionary, polluter pays, intergenerational equity, public trust.
- Indian ethos: Bishnoi, Chipko, Arts 48A and 51A(g), Ranjitsinh 2024.
- Dilemmas: development vs conservation; Niyamgiri as a model.
- Conclude: Mission LiFE and sustainable development.
⚡ Quick revision
- Approaches: anthropocentric, biocentric (Schweitzer), ecocentric (Leopold's land ethic 1949), deep ecology (Naess 1973), ecofeminism, animal ethics (Singer 1975)
- Principles: intergenerational equity (Brundtland 1987), polluter pays and precautionary (Vellore 1996), public trust (Kamal Nath 1997)
- India: Bishnoi 1730 (Amrita Devi), Chipko 1973, Arts 48A and 51A(g) (42nd Amdt 1976), Ranjitsinh 2024, Niyamgiri 2013, Mission LiFE 2022
- Bioethics: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice (Beauchamp and Childress 1979); Nuremberg 1947, Helsinki 1964, Belmont 1979
- Laws: Surrogacy and ART Acts 2021, MTP 2021, THOTA 1994, PCPNDT 1994, Common Cause 2018, Mental Healthcare Act 2017
Gene editing is the precise alteration of an organism's DNA at chosen sites; CRISPR-Cas9, adapted from a bacterial immune system, is the most widely used tool, guiding an enzyme to cut DNA so that genes can be disabled, corrected or changed.The quality of being consistently guided by sound moral principles, so that one's values, words and actions match, in private and in public, even when no one is watching and when it is costly to do so.A principle of international environmental law that all countries share responsibility for protecting the global environment, but their obligations differ according to their historical contribution to the problem and their capacity to act.The Upanishads are philosophical texts that form the concluding layer of the Vedic literature, exploring the relationship between the individual self (atman) and ultimate reality (brahman); they are the foundation of the Vedanta schools of Indian thought.Eleven moral and civic obligations of citizens listed in Article 51A (Part IVA), added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976; they are not enforceable by courts but guide interpretation and legislation.Empathy is the ability to understand and share another person's feelings and perspective; compassion goes a step further, adding the motivation to act to relieve that person's suffering.Protection of life and personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. Full coverage: Article 21 and 21A: Life, Personal Liberty and Education.A 2006 law that recognises and vests forest rights, including land, use of forest produce and community management, in Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.India's apex court under Articles 124–147; guardian of the Constitution and final court of appeal. Full coverage: The Supreme Court: Composition, Appointment and Jurisdiction.The assembly of all registered voters of a village or group of villages within a gram panchayat area; it is the foundation of direct democracy under the 73rd Amendment.The 1994 law, renamed and strengthened in 2003, that bans sex selection before or after conception, regulates diagnostic techniques like ultrasound, and prohibits disclosure of the sex of the foetus.The rights-based 2017 law that guarantees every person access to mental healthcare funded or provided by the government, allows advance directives and nominated representatives, regulates admissions to mental health establishments, and effectively decriminalises attempted suicide.Immunity is the body's ability to resist infection; vaccines are biological preparations that safely train the immune system to recognise a pathogen, so that it can respond quickly if exposed later.India's umbrella health programme launched in 2018, with two pillars: a network of upgraded primary care centres (now Ayushman Arogya Mandirs) and the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana, which gives eligible families cashless hospital cover of up to ₹5 lakh a year.
