The Gandhian Era and Independence (1920–1947)

The three big mass movements

Other milestones

• 1927–28 – Simon Commission: no Indian members. Protests ("Simon Go Back"); Lala Lajpat Rai died after a lathi charge.
• 1928 – Nehru Report: an Indian draft for a constitution with dominion status.
• Dec 1929 – Lahore session: Jawaharlal Nehru presided; the Purna Swaraj resolution was passed; 26 January 1930 was celebrated as Independence Day. This is why our Constitution came into force on 26 January.
• 1931 – Gandhi–Irwin Pact; Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference.
• 1932 – Communal Award and the Poona Pact between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: reserved seats for the Depressed Classes within the general electorate.
• 1935 – Government of India Act: provincial autonomy and a proposed federation. Many features passed into our Constitution.
• 1942 – Cripps Mission; 1943 – INA under Subhas Chandra Bose ("Delhi Chalo"); 1945–46 – INA trials at the Red Fort.
• 1946 – Cabinet Mission → Constituent Assembly elections; RIN mutiny (Royal Indian Navy).
• 3 June 1947 – Mountbatten Plan for partition → Indian Independence Act 1947 → independence on 15 August 1947.

Revolutionaries to know

Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly (1929). The HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Association) had Chandrashekhar Azad. The Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930) was led by Surya Sen.

Background: Gandhi's preparation

In South Africa (1893–1914), Gandhi developed satyagraha – the force of truth and non-violence – against racial laws. In India he tested it in three local struggles:

• Champaran (1917) – indigo farmers in Bihar (tinkathia system);
• Ahmedabad mill strike (1918) – his first hunger strike;
• Kheda (1918) – a demand for revenue remission after crop failure; Sardar Patel joined him.

These taught him how to combine peasants, workers and the middle class.

The three great mass movements

Other key events in order

• Swaraj Party (1923) – C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru entered the councils to obstruct from within.
• Simon Commission (1927) – "Simon, go back"; Lala Lajpat Rai died after a lathi charge (1928).
• Nehru Report (1928) – dominion status and a list of fundamental rights. Jinnah responded with his Fourteen Points (1929).
• Lahore session (1929) – Purna Swaraj under Jawaharlal Nehru; 26 January 1930 was celebrated as Independence Day. The Republic Day of 1950 was chosen in memory of it.
• Round Table Conferences (1930–32) – Gandhi attended only the Second.
• Communal Award (1932) and the Poona Pact (Gandhi–Ambedkar): reserved seats for the depressed classes within joint electorates instead of separate electorates.
• Government of India Act 1935 – provincial autonomy, a proposed federation (it never came into being), the Federal Court (1937). Congress ministries were formed in 1937 and resigned in 1939 over India being dragged into the war.
• August Offer (1940) and Individual Satyagraha (Vinoba Bhave was the first satyagrahi).
• Cripps Mission (1942) – dominion status after the war, with the right of provinces to opt out. Gandhi called it a "post-dated cheque".
• INA trials (1945) – Subhas Bose's Azad Hind Fauj officers were tried at the Red Fort, uniting the country. The RIN mutiny (1946) followed.
• Cabinet Mission (1946) – a three-tier groupings plan; Muslim League Direct Action Day (16 August 1946).
• Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) – partition. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 – independence on 15 August 1947.

Other streams of the struggle

• Revolutionaries, second wave: HRA → HSRA (Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad); the Kakori case (1925); the Central Assembly bomb (1929); the Chittagong armoury raid (Surya Sen, 1930).
• The Left: the Congress Socialist Party (1934); kisan sabhas; trade unions (AITUC, 1920).
• Princely-state people's movements: the All India States People's Conference (1927).
• Women: Sarojini Naidu, Kasturba Gandhi, Aruna Asaf Ali (who hoisted the flag at Gowalia Tank, 1942), Usha Mehta (the secret Congress Radio).
• Tribal and peasant movements: Bardoli (1928, Patel became "Sardar"), the Tebhaga movement (1946), Telangana (1946–51).

Causes of partition – a balanced view

British "divide and rule" (separate electorates); the rise of communal politics on both sides; the League's two-nation theory (Lahore Resolution, 1940); the failure of the Cabinet Mission; communal violence in 1946–47; and Britain's hurry to leave.

Case study: Dandi as a model of strategic communication

Gandhi chose salt, which every Indian used and which the British taxed. He walked about 390 km in 24 days, with media coverage across the world. He gave a simple, legal-looking action that anyone could copy. This is a classic example in GS4 (leadership, persuasion) and in essays on non-violence: a small, symbolic act can mobilise millions.

Common misconceptions

• "Gandhi called off Non-Cooperation because he lost faith in the people." – He feared a slide into violence before the people were trained in non-violence.
• "Quit India was led by Gandhi on the streets." – Top leaders were arrested on 9 August 1942. Leadership came from the underground (Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali) and from local people.
• "The Poona Pact reduced Dalit seats." – It actually increased the number of reserved seats (148 against 71 in the Award) but within joint electorates.

How UPSC asks it

Prelims frequently asks about chronology (sessions, pacts, missions), who led which movement, and the content of acts and plans. Mains themes include the role of women, peasants and workers, Gandhi's techniques, and why the British left.

Mains answer framework

Q-type: "Analyse the factors that led to the transfer of power in 1947."

• Introduction: 15 August 1947 – the culmination of a long struggle.
• Internal: mass movements (especially Quit India), the INA trials, the RIN mutiny, the loss of loyalty among Indian officials.
• External: Britain's post-war economic weakness, the Labour government, US pressure, the global wave of decolonisation.
• Communal factor: partition as the price.
• Conclusion: India's non-violent mass struggle as a world model.

Practice question

Q. "Gandhi transformed the national movement into a mass movement." Explain. Outline: simple symbols (salt, khadi, the charkha) that everyone could use; non-violent methods that allowed women, peasants and students to participate; constructive programme (village work, removal of untouchability); local struggles linked to national goals (Champaran, Kheda, Bardoli); and the moral authority that united diverse groups, despite disagreements with leaders such as Ambedkar and Subhas Chandra Bose.

Check your understanding

1. Why was Non-Cooperation withdrawn in 1922? After violence at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi called it off, insisting on non-violence.
2. What was the Poona Pact (1932)? An agreement between Gandhi and Ambedkar replacing separate electorates for the depressed classes with reserved seats in joint electorates.